Mechanisms of Water Oxidation Catalyzed by Ruthenium Diimine Complexes

Abstract

¹⁸O-isotope-labeling studies have led to the conclusion that there exist two major pathways for water oxidation catalyzed by dimeric ruthenium ions of the general type cis,cis-[L₂Ru^III(OH₂)]₂O⁴⁺. We have proposed that both pathways involve concerted addition of H and OH fragments derived from H₂O to the complexes in their four-electron-oxidized states, i.e., [L₂Ru^V(O)]₂O⁴⁺, ultimately generating bound peroxy intermediates that decay with the evolution of O₂. The pathways differ primarily in the site of addition of the OH fragment, which is either a ruthenyl O atom or a bipyridine ligand. In the former case, water addition is thought to give rise to a critical intermediate whose structure is L₂Ru^IV(OH)ORu^IV(OOH)L₂⁴⁺; the structures of intermediates involved in the other pathway are less well defined but may involve bipyridine OH adducts of the type L₂Ru^V(O)ORu^IV(OH)(L^•OH)L⁴⁺, which could react further to generate unstable dioxetanes or similar endoperoxides. Published experimental and theoretical support for these pathways is reviewed within the broader context of water oxidation catalysis and related reactions reported for other diruthenium and group 8 monomeric diimine-based catalysts. New experiments that are designed to probe the issue of bipyridine ligand “noninnocence” in catalysis are described. Specifically, the relative contributions of the two pathways have been shown to correlate with substituent effects in 4,4′- and 5,5′-substituted bipyridine complexes in a manner consistent with the formation of a reactive OH-adduct intermediate in one of the pathways, and the formation of OH-bipyridine adducts during catalytic turnover has been directly confirmed by optical spectroscopy. Finally, a photosensitized system for catalyzed water oxidation has been developed that allows assessment of the catalytic efficiencies of the complex ions under neutral and alkaline conditions; these studies show that the ions are far better catalysts than had previously been assumed based upon reported catalytic parameters obtained with strong oxidants in acidic media.