Sex-Associated Hormones and Immunity to Protozoan Parasites
Top Cited Papers
Open Access
- 1 July 2001
- journal article
- review article
- Published by American Society for Microbiology in Clinical Microbiology Reviews
- Vol. 14 (3), 476-488
- https://doi.org/10.1128/cmr.14.3.476-488.2001
Abstract
SUMMARY: Numerous epidemiological and clinical studies have noted differences in the incidence and severity of parasitic diseases between males and females. Although in some instances this may be due to gender-associated differences in behavior, there is overwhelming evidence that sex-associated hormones can also modulate immune responses and consequently directly influence the outcome of parasitic infection. Animal models of disease can often recreate the gender-dependent differences observed in humans, and the role of sex-associated hormones can be confirmed by experimentally altering their levels. Under normal circumstances, levels of sex hormones not only differ between males and females but vary according to age. Furthermore, not only are females of reproductive age subject to the regular hormonal cycles which control ovulation, they are also exposed to dramatically altered levels during pregnancy. It is thus not surprising that the severity of many diseases, including those caused by parasites, has been shown to be affected by one or more of these circumstances. In addition, infection with many pathogens has been shown to have an adverse influence on pregnancy. In this article we review the impact of sex-associated hormones on the immune system and the development and maintenance of immunity to the intracellular protozoan parasites Toxoplasma gondii, Plasmodium spp., and Leishmania spp.Keywords
This publication has 174 references indexed in Scilit:
- The Role of γ/δ T Cell Receptor Positive Cells in PregnancyAmerican Journal of Reproductive Immunology, 1999
- Estradiol Down‐Regulates LPS‐Induced Cytokine Production and NFkB Activation in Murine MacrophagesAmerican Journal of Reproductive Immunology, 1997
- Novel Gene Expressed in Spleen Cells Mediating Acquired Testosterone-Resistant Immunity toPlasmodium chabaudiMalariaBiochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 1997
- Estrogen Blocks Early T Cell Development in the ThymusAmerican Journal of Reproductive Immunology, 1996
- Sex steroids, pregnancy-associated hormones and immunity to parasitic infectionParasitology Today, 1996
- Oestrogen Treatment Depletes Extrathymic T Cells from Intestinal Lymphoid TissuesScandinavian Journal of Immunology, 1996
- Malaria during pregnancy: A priority area of malaria research and controlParasitology Today, 1995
- Sex differences and cross-immunity in DBA/2 mice infected withL. mexicanaandL. majorParasitology, 1988
- Effect of sex hormones on NK and ADDC activity of miceInternational Journal of Immunopharmacology, 1988
- Oestrogen as an inhibitor of human NK cell cytolysisFEBS Letters, 1985